Managing diversity gender (HRM) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Managing diversity gender (HRM) - Essay Example Instead, it should be understood for the company's growth and development in terms of management and productivity. It is a common knowledge that every human being is born unique from one another. But sometimes, there are common attitude that people share. Most men projects authority over the other gender is an example. There are certain business organizations, such as technical and industrial companies, that men are the usual individual to have an executive position or even the job itself . This group believes that it is odd to have women working in these fields. Because of this, said industries are having difficulties in keeping and hiring female workers (Weiss n.d.). In his article, Managing Gender Diversity: Five Secrets for a Manager's Toolkit, Weiss cited a research study by Louann Brizendine on how men and women faces the environment they are working on. According to Brizendine, men and women react accordingly based on how their brain processes information, what their intuition is saying, how they feel, their intention in communicating and anger management. Women's brain works, first, by identifying the faces of the people around them while men are more on scanning their environment. This is the reason why women are more capable of sensing other people's emotion than men. Most women also trust in their gut feeling than men.

Comment closely on the following poem Essay Example for Free

Comment closely on the following poem Essay The Self-Unseeing portrays Hardy reminiscing over his childhood life with his parents. In the first stanza, the setting their old house is described in a way that conveys a sense of age and weariness, through such words and phrases as ‘ancient’ (emphasizing the age), ‘footworn and hollowed and thin’ (alluding to the emptiness which has overtaken it through the passage of time after it has been abandoned), ‘former’ (revealing the extent of change in the house, eg. by the door no longer being there), and ‘dead feet’ (those of his parents). At this point in the poem Hardy speaks in the present tense from the outside of the house, in order to convey its emptiness to the reader. The second stanza ignores these aspects of the house, instead focusing on his memories of his parents, which contrast with the first stanza by filling the house with life and action. A happier mood is created here, through a sense of warmth created by the fire, and his mother’s smile, which, along with his father’s playing the violin (‘bowing it higher and higher’), shows the happiness he felt while living with his parents. The musical effect of the violin is also complemented by that of the smooth-flowing ‘abab‘ rhyme scheme. The present tense verbs ‘smiling’ and ‘bowing’ imply that these memories were vivid, as if by introducing the setting to the reader he is reliving them. Hardy’s reference to his parents using the pronouns ‘she’ and ‘he’ rather than their actual names transforms the personal tragedy of the death of his parents to a universal one to which the reader can more easily relate. However, this tragedy is buried beneath the warm, welcoming mood established by the aforementioned use of language in this stanza. Hardy illuminates these memories in the final stanza with light imagery ‘blessings’ (which tend to be associated with heaven and therefore light), ‘day’, ‘glowed’, ‘gleam’, which underscore the joyful feelings previously evoked. This use of light imagery serves as a metaphor to reveal how Hardy, ‘childlike’, ‘danced in a dream’, and overall, the diction shows that his memories had a dazzling and pensive quality. However, it can be seen from the concluding line, ‘Yet we were looking away! ’, that he feels remorseful for not fully appreciating what he had at the time. It is this line which gives meaning to the poem’s title he (the ‘self’) was ‘unseeing’ and could not see the true value of his life with his parents. This makes the light imagery all the more powerful, as Hardy uses it to show that he is now able to see what he was unable to in his childhood. His newfound appreciation for his memories is also evident in the first stanza, where ‘here is’ and ‘here was’ sorrowfully reveal the setting of which he is about to reminisce. Overall, Hardy’s memories are presented in this poem with both regret and happiness. The phrase ‘hollowed and thin’ in the first stanza, in light of this regret, describes the likely state of his soul following the loss of his parents. The regret is subtle at first, but becomes much more apparent after reading the last line; it is as if Hardy uses this line to allow the reader to look back (as he had looked back on his past) and be filled with regret through this reflection. The past-tense verbs ‘walked’, ‘sat’, and ‘stood’, which are simply describing what once was, become tinged with regret (as if mourning) upon a second glance. In contrast, the passive verbs ‘danced’, ‘emblazoned’, and ‘glowed’ preserve their cheerful connotations, which suggest that to Hardy, reminiscence is a bittersweet experience. This idea is supported by the structure of the poem: three quatrains with ‘abab’ rhyme schemes; although the rhyme scheme establishes a sense of reminiscence, there are emotions both positive and negative associated with it. The simple pattern of it also mirrors the simplicity and naivety of childhood. The structure, rhythm, and diction of the poem thus convey a powerful message that pleasant experiences will eventually become memories, carrying both the happiness of their past occurrence and the regret and sadness of knowing that their time is past.

Honour Killings: Causes and Strategies for Intervention

Honour Killings: Causes and Strategies for Intervention What is honour killing? Every year, hundreds of women are killed in the name of honour by their family members because they have brought shame to the family and the community. Honour killing is defined murdering a member of the family in the name of honour, it is usually the female who is murdered for bringing shame to the family. In rare cases, men are also murdered if they bring dishonour to their family or community. It is believed that honour killing is a private family affair and it should remain between the four walls of the house, no accurate statistics are available on this social evil. It should be noted that honour killing is a gender-neutral concept but overwhelming majority victims are women. The only fundamental difference is that the male accussed of dishonouring might be given a chance to explain his situation before the trible leaders and can escape the death penalty by giving compensation to the family who has been ‘dishonoured’. Women are rarely given oppurtunaties to explain their side of the story and the only possible way to restore the honour is by killing the women who has brought shame to the family. Where does it take place? Pakistan consists of four provinces known as Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab and North West Frontier Province(NWFP). The menance known as honour killing frequently all four provinces of Pakistan. In Sindh, the practise of honour killing is known as â€Å"Karo Kari†, meaning ‘black female’ and ‘black male’. In Balochistan it is known Siahkal. The majority of the honour killings take place in rural areas, however, there have been some reported incidents of honour killings in urban cities of Pakistan such as Karachi and Lahore. How can one be dishonoured? Honour killings for a choosing a marriage partner According to the article 16 of Universal Declaration of human rights, both men and women of full age, irrespective race, religion and nationality can enter into marriage with any partner of their choice. It is our fundamental to marry a partner of our choice, however in Pakistan, women are not encouraged to have this right because women are seen as personal property of a man, therefore women should exercise their right. Women are seen as commodity owned and controlled by their fathers, husbands and brothers. Women are not suppose to express any desires and feelings contrary to the wishes of their fathers, husbands, and brothers. Traiditionally women are not allowed to choose their partners for marriage. The head of the family, usually the father, chooses the groom. the bride does not have any say in the process and any defiance against the process is considered a taboo. Women who have been succesful in marrying partners of their choice are often threatened by their father that charges of zina(unlawful sexual relations) would be brought against them. Under the islamic law of marriage, the wali(the closest male adult relative) has the responsibilty and authority with respect to marriage, the wali is usually the father and if it can be proved that the father did not give consent to the marriage then it will be considered invalid, if marriage is invalid then any sexual relations which took place between the man and the women would amount to zina. Most of the time, family members take matters into their own hands instead of going to court. A women who married a man of her choice was murdered outside Peshawar court by her brother in the name of honour. Women seeking divorce The article 16 of Universal declaration of human rights states that men and woman should have equal rights regarding dissolution of marriage. Under Islamic marriage law, a man is allowed to divorce his wife anytime, the divorce can be given verbally but a women cannot divorce her husband, she can apply for Khula(Separation) in the court of law. Divorce is seen as a very serious problem in the muslim world and muslim women are enouraged to avoid divorce at any cost, even if it means by putting up with a severely abusive husband. In 1999, Saima Sarwar was shot dead in a lawyers office because she attempted to obtain divorce from her husband severely abusive husband. The killing was instructed by her uncle but he was soon released Qisas and Diyat laws which states that the person(s) involved in killing will go free if he is pardoned by the Wali of the victim.Her uncle went unpunised as he was pardoned by her husbad and father in the capacity of Wali. It should be noted that Saima Sarwar belonged to a upper-class prominent family, her father is a entrepenuer and the mother is a doctor, this case shows the social evil in question is a cause of concern for both rural and urban population. The local newspapers in the region overwhemingly supported the killing, arguing that it was accordance to the tradition and therefore it cannot be a crime. Honour killings for rape A woman brings shame to the family if she becomes a victim of rape. In 1999, a 16 year old mentally-retarded girl was raped on many occasions by junior clerk of the local government department of agriculture in hotel in Parachinar, NWFP. The uncle of the girl lodged a complain, the accussed was taken into protective custody and the girl was handed to her tribe. The Jirga(tribal court) decided that she has brought shame to her tribe and the honour can only be restored by killing her. She was shot dead in front of tribal gathering. Get rich quick scheme? Ratio of honor killings is higher in those provinces where agriculture lands are abundant. Land is the main reason behind a majority of honor killing incidents in Sindh and Punjab. In overwhelming majority of cases, there is always a ulterior motive such as lust for money, land, lust for another women or to conceal other crimes. Many individuals exploit the concept of honour killing for gaining compensation or land. If both accused of karo kari are murdered then the matter usually ends but if only kari is killed and karo escapes, the karo has to compensate the affected man by giving him money, land or another women. Nafisa Shah, a leading human rights activist describes honour killing as industry which has range of stakeholders including tribes people, police administration and tribal mediators, honour killing is used as an excuse to hide sins and gain money. Police accept bribes of about 7000 rupees(equivalent to  £70) for not investigating claims of honour killing. The International Law International human rights law recognises â€Å"honour crimes† as a form violence against women, therefore it is a direct violation women’s right to life and security; freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment; and the right to equality before the law and equal protection of the law. Honor crimes also violate rights guaranteed to women by the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), such as the right to freely choose one’s spouse and the right to equality in marriage. CEDAW’s General Recommendation Number 19 defines gender-based violence as a form of discrimination against women and makes explicit reference to honor crimes. CEDAW obligates States to protect women from gender-based violence, including violence committed by family members and to prevent, investigate, and punish acts of violence against women. The Convention also requires States to disqualify honor as a legal defense for acts of violence against women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women echoes these obligations and states that, States should condemn violence against women and should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its elimination (Article 4). International human rights law is enforced through the state and by way of treaties. A state becoming the party to a international treaty will be bound by th treaty and it is the state’s responsibility and duty to protect the rights of the citizens. Pakistan is a party to a â€Å"Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women†, the treaty has been ratified and as a result of that, the Pakistani government ammended the Criminal Act 2004 which makes â€Å"Honour killing† a punishable offence. Apart from making the ammendment to Criminal Act 2004, Pakistan has taken several other intitaves to curb honour killings and domestic violence against women: Establishment of Gender Crime Cell Gender Crime Cell was established in National Bureau on 1st April 2006 to curb violence against women. The function of the Cell is to gather, collate and analyse data on cases of violence against women. The cell will act as central repository of relevant data on cases of violence against women and it will assist top-policy makers in developing holistic and effective policy countermeasures to control the social evil volence against women. Gender and Human Rights Sensitization To sensitize the police and to further improve law enforcement response to human rights situations, a comprehensive program has been included in the cirruculum of police training schools, police training colleges and national police academy. Cooperation/Collaboration with NGOs/ Civil society National Police Bureau has welcomed visits from NGOs who monitored severall police stations across the country, the main aim was to look into the business procedures, handling of public complaints against police, infra-structure, and facilities in lock-up of the stations. According to the Government of Pakistan, all these measures will help directly or indirectly contribute against curbing crimes against women. After reading the responses submitted to UN by the Government of Pakistan regarding the issues relating to violence against women, one would get the impression that Pakistan is trying to tackle the problem, some measures have been to curb the problem mentioned but the measures taken are not adequate enough to protect women, controversial laws such as Qisas still exist which are often exploited by murderers. Qisas Law Qisas law is relates to offences involving bodily injury or loss of life. The aim of the Qisas law is to put the victim’s family in control, ir is up to the family members of the victim to decide whether to bring an action against the murderer or pardon the murderer. Under the law, murdering a family member virtually carries no punishment as the other family members have the right to pardon the killer. In June 2002, Zakir killed 18- year Sabiha on suspicion that she had become pregnant, Zakir was pardoned by uncle of Sabiha, therefore his crime went unpunished. In a situation like such as this, courts and law enforcement agencies cannot take further action if the pardon is granted by the family member of the victim. n 90 percent cases of honor killings, the culprits are close relatives and therefore they are easily forgiven by the family of the deceased, in order successfully tackle this social evil, Qisas and Diyat Ordinance should not be in practise at all as it allows murderers to walk away free. It is evident that more needs to be done to tacke the menance known as honour killing, but the question what can the further steps can UN take to ensure that Pakistani Government makes further ammendments to the law to ensure that no murderers goes unpunished? The role of United Nations The human rights machinery in the UN systems works in three areas: information, analyis and policy development; provision of support to human rights bodies and organs; and promotion and protection of human rights. In order for this machinery to be successful, the UN has developed human rights institutions at the country level. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights(OHCHR) assigns human rights advisers to country teams and their aim is to advance human rights through legislative, judicial and other enforcement mechanisms. The UN has created commitees to oversee implementation of implementation human rights but the commitees have a limited power to investigate or monitor violations of human rights. The UN machinery is merely way of recording information. If a state fails to comply with demands of UN then procedures usually range from coaxing to naming and shaming, it is very rare that sanctions are imposed for human rights violations because of the undesirable consequences. UN is also having monetary problem, many of the major member states have refused to pay their assesed share of costs, the guaranteed budget of OHCHR has fallen less than half. United nations is not effective in curbing human rights violations, it has no other to make sure that the human rights are not violated, they do not have effective mechanisms to make sure that human rights are enforced and they do not have the necessary resources. Simply by signing and ratifying a treaty does not ensure that the State will carry their duties and protect human rights. The only serious measure which the UN can take is impose sanctions. It is possible to impose sanctions solely on the basis of human rights, imposing sanctions for breaches of human rights is rare. Should the UN impose sanctions to pressurize the Government? UN can impose sanctions such as diplomatic isolation , restrictions on international travel, trade and financial transactions. Sanctions is regarded a tool created to ensure that States comply with demands of UN. Imposing may seem as attractive option but it can discredited on the basis of its harsh consequences on the citizens of the state. Sanctions have a bad history as they inflict undeniable pain on the citizens which the UN is trying to protect. If UN was to impose trade and financial sanctions to pressurise Pakistan to do more to curb honour killlings, then it is highly unlikely the sanction will work because Pakistan already a poor country, 17% of the population lives under $1 a day. Pakistan economy nearly went bankrupt as a result of sanctions imposed by UN for carrying out nuclear tests. Economic sanctions means that the Pakistan economy will suffer and therefore the people of Pakistan will suffer, the overall level of poverty will increase and it is likely that honour killings will increase as well because honour killings are often carried to gain compensation or land. Sanctions will have a counter-productive effect on Pakistan, therefore it should be avoided. The role of NGOs Traditionally NGOs are considered to be more effective than United Nations, in the sense that they are better at monitoring than UN. NGOs tend to focus on one issue at a time compared to UN which focuses and many issues at a time, thus there is overload of work within the UN, therefore the procedure of monitoring is not effective. NGOs do not have any authority, it can pressurise Government by way of protest, NGOs can run aware campaigns and provide support and counciling services to the victims. NGOs cannot directlty enforce human rights, for human rights to be enforced, NGOs rely on courts, there are still loopholes in the law which favour the murderer, unless the loopholes are closed, the NGOs will not be effective. Majority of ‘honour killings’ take place in remote areas such as NWFP due to poor infrastructure, as a result of poor infrastructure, it can be very difficult for NGOs to monitor remote areas of Pakistan. According to Khawar Mumtaz, a leading human rights activist said there were many as eight NGOs working in the NWFP and for betterment of women. The organisations were targeted by religious extremists, the houses of workers and directors were destroyed. The NGOs had to close their operations and flee from NWFP because of security concerns. Who else can help? Apart from the United Nations and NGOs, countries such as United Kingdom can help to tackle problems such as ‘honour killings’ in Pakistan by giving them aid, which then can be used to improve the situation of human rights in Pakistan. The United Kingdom donated  £2m in 2006 to set up a gender and justice protection fund, the main aim of the fund is to curb violence against women. Many critics argue that the aid which is given is not always spent on protection of human rights due to high levels of corruption within the the Government. How can we fight this social evil? Legal measures The Government of Pakistan must repeal the Qisas law as it provides a loophole for murderers to exploit, the fight against the menance cannot be won unless Pakistani Government makes further ammendments to law. Adopt a legislation which would criminalise all forms of domestic violence, The UN has developed a framework for a model legislation which can be adopted. Honour killing should be treated as a crime against the state and Preventive measures Run campaigns to inform citizens of their human rights througout the country. Currently Ministry of Law, Justice and Human Rights is running a human rights mass awareness campaign throughout the country. The campaign is approached through print and electronic media, the campaign is delivered in the form of jingles, talk shows, commercials, slogans and promotional material in the Newspapers. In remote areas such as NWFP and interior Sindh, the people don’t usually have access to electronic media or newspapers. The literacy levels are low in pakistan, the literacy rate for women in 16%, this means that media is ineffective in remote areas because there is no televisions and majority of the women cannot read and write. The women who live in remote areas are most vunerable. Honour killing crimes are under-reported, as a result it is not possible to estimate the real magnitude of the problem. Monitoring and collecting information would help the Government to understand the problem better, and therefore it will enable the Government to come up with better strategy. Protective measures Provide adequate protection to human rights activists and lawyers, often leading human rights activits such as Hina Jilani and Asma Jehangir. In one incident, the two daughters of Asma Jehangir were assaulted and illegally held for several hours along with their friends by armed persons because they were making a video clip. The police did eventually arrive but failed to take any action againt the perpertrators, the police asked Asma Jehangir to remain quiet otherwise the girls would be kidnapped, raped and killed. If activists are not adequately protected by law enforcement agencies then they will not be able to fight for protection of human rights. Long term strategies Honour killing is not a recent phenomoen, similar practices have been known since ancient Roman times, when the Pater Familias (senior male within a household) retained the right to kill an unmarried but sexually active daughter or an adulterous wife. In order to fully eradicate this menance, we should look at the true root causes in order to curb this heinous crime against women. The three main factors are: Male domination Financial dependency Lack of education Male domination Both men and women should be represented equally in all public institutions, most importantly there should be proportiante representaion of women in the Government. The National Assemebly of Pakistan(equivalent to Parliament) has a total number 342 seats and 60 seats are reserved for women, only 17.5% of seats are occupied by women, in order to protect rights of women, it is imperative they are represented proportionaly in the Government. At the moment, there are few women in the Government who are holding key Government ministry, Sherry Rehman is the only women who is holding the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting which considered one of the important ministries. Recently Dr Fehmida Mirza was elected as the Speaker of National Assembly, she is the first woman is Pakistan to be elected as the Speaker of Natioanl Assembly. Late Benazir Bhutto was the first female prime minister of a muslim country. To end male domination, women should participate in politics, proportiante representation would mean that it will not possible to pass discriminatory laws in future against women such as Hudood ordinance as women would have a greater say in the law making process. Financial dependency Agriculture is the largest of economy of Pakistan, 79.8% of rural women are engaged in some sort of agricultural work. Majority of rural women have dual responsibilties, they have to look after house and work in agricultural land as well but they are grossly underpaid, in many cases they are not paid at all. Most women living in rural areas of Pakistan are not aware of their rights such as equal pay, the Government should run campaigns to empower women and inform them of their rights. The Government should run courses to give women vocational training, this would improve women’s capacity to earn by increasing women’s access to source of livelihood, in particular cottage industry, livestock production and agriculture. Only 9% of the jobs in the services industry of Pakistan are done by women. The Government should encourgae equal employment oppurtunities, it was only 2001 when an Act was introduced which ensures equal remunaration for men and women for work of equal value. Study carried by a NGO confirmed the widespread occurrence of sexual harrasment of women at the workplace, the Government of Pakistan been able to implement laws which adequately protect women at the workplace. Government should undertake measure to make places more safe so women could work without fear of discrimination and harassment. Lack of education Only 16% of women in Pakistan are literate. Illiteracy rates are very high Pakistan. The education sector in suffering from inadequate financing and infrastructure. The budget allocated to education sector is low, Pakistan is one of the twelve countries who spend 2% of their GDP on eduction sector. Education needs to be improved, more schools are needed in Pakistan so more girls could attend school. How practical is it to enforce rights in Pakistan? Lack of eductation and financial independence are the main factors which stop from going to relevant law authorities for protection of their human rights, low literacy rate and lack of awareness does stop women for seeking protection against violations of human rights. Also approching the judiciary through a lawyer can be a expensive proposition, therefore women do not attempt to take any action. Democracy and human rights It is believed that military regime are the worst offenders of human rights, from November 1999 to Feburary 2008, General Pervez Musharraf, a army general has enjoyed absolute power over Pakistan. In his term many human rights abuses took place such lal masjid killings and he sacked 12 judges out of 17 judges to install his own hand picked judges. General Pervez Musharraf’s human rights record has been poor. Elections took place on 18th Feburary 2008, most specators believe that elections were free and fair and democracy was restored. Recently the new Government ratified a key UN human rights treaty and signed two others, this suggests that the new democratic Government is serious about human rights issues and the position of human rights should be better under the Government of Pakistan People’s Party. For many years, a military general had absolute power over Pakistan, the military regime was rarely criticised by USA or UK because of Pakistan position against war on terror, infact he was praised by George W Bush and Tony Blair for his role despite the fact that he committed various violations of international law during his tenure, UN never imposed any economic sanctions on Pakistan, infact economic sanctions were lifted which were on Pakistan for conducting nuclear tests in 1997 after he promised support to hunt Osama bin Laden. Human rights violations in Pakistan are often ignored by major member states such USA and UK. The major member states did provide immunity to a dictator against human right violations, If USA and UK would have not supported Musharraf and would have taken steps earlier to restore democracy in Pakistan then the human rights situations would have been far improved by now. Jirga system Jirga is defined a tribal assembly consisting of male elders of the tribe. Majority of the cases relating to honour killings are decided in Jirga instead of a formal court. Jirga should be banned because the system is unfit to provide justice to women, male elders are biased towards women, trial by jirga is the prime protector of the tradition of honour killing. The tribal assembly usually consists of uneducated male elders who do not have the knowledge and the skills to judge. They do not have any jurisdiction to impose capital punishments. Sindh is the only province of Pakistan where the panchayat(equivalent to Jirgra system) have been banned, Jirga system still operational in Baluchistan and North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Jirga system should be be completely banned throughout Pakistan, the only reason why Jirga system is still operational in rural parts of Pakistan because it seen as a cheaper alternative. Any hope? Pakistan is grappling with many crisis at the moment, the burning of judiciary is still unsolved. There is shortage flour and food prices are rising dramatically. There is severe shortage of basic neccesaties such as electricity and clean water in Pakistan. Recently, one of the most popular leader of Pakistan was shot dead. The new Pakistani Government is facing many problems and as result of that, they are not able to fully concentrate human rights issues, honour killings have rarely received any attention from the media or the new Government. We can only hope that the new Government takes positive steps to curb this social evil, so far there has been no progress made by the new Government to address this problem. Pakistan as a suffering from increasing unemployment, increasing inflation and growing anger and frustrations with the system, lack of opportunities, all these factors can lead to violence against women, all tend to build aggravation in men. At the end of the day, it’s the women who are at the receiving end of the vented frustration, thus violence against women occurs as a direct result.

Princess Diana :: essays research papers

Art can be describe and shown in many ways. When I look at art, I looked to see different types of painting, sculpture, or anything that is made out of any object that is creative. Princess Diana exhibit was a different type of art that I would never considers as being art. At the Museum of Art in Fort Lauderdale, â€Å"Diana A Celebration† displayed many collections of Princess Diana Family memorable items for the world to see. My first impression I had in my mind before visiting Diana A Celebration was to see beautiful painting or sculptures, but instead I walk into a room that portrayed as a biography of Princess Diana life. Visiting the Downtown Miami Museum kept a vision in my mind of traditional type of art. My mind has been closed minded as to what art is and what type of art is really considered art. â€Å"What art really is?† can be a question that is probably asked and can never be answered because of the different opinions about art. Generally, comparing to the Museum of Art in Downtown Miami and the Diana A Celebration exhibit, you can defiantly see the different type of Art and how it is presented.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Downtown Miami Museum of Art was more of a traditionally type of Art that many people will recognize first. The museum displayed many types of paintings that were drawn by famous artist. There was a beautiful arrangement out of mirrors that when you stood in front of the piece it presented many reflections of yourself. The collections of painting at the Downtown Miami museum made you step out of the box and think so you would try to figure out what the artist is trying to reveal in their paintings. Art to me should be like a brain buster trying to solve an unsolved mystery, a beautiful sketch, or a creative piece that have never been done before. However, at the Princess Diana exhibit, I learned more about her life, contributions, and death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Princess Diana exhibit was a beautiful exhibit that displayed the time she was born, married, and sadly died. Princess Diana of Wales was born Lady Diana Frances Spencer on 1 July 1961 in Norfolk. Princes Diana was the youngest of four children and she had two sisters, Sarah and Jane, and a younger brother Charles. Princess Diana lived with her father and in 1975 the family moved to the Spencer family house in Northampton shire in English Midlands.

Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People

INTRODUCTION Despite the fact that young people are most often the healthiest group of people in the population (Emmelkamp, and Vedel, 2006), there is concern about the extent to which this group engages in risk-taking behaviours, including the consumption of drugs and alcohol and the abuse of these substances. Such activities expose them to problems ranging from the individual health level to the costs incurred during rehabilitation (Berglund, Thelander & Jonsson, 2003). Rehabilitation needs often include mental health and psychiatric solutions due to the mental health and social problems caused by drinking and the consumption of illegal drugs. In the UK, the use of psychoactive substances has become a major activity among the youth population. For example, it has been shown that 50% of young people in the age bracket 16-24 years have used an illicit drug on at least one occasion in their lives. This project also exposed that the most commonly used drug is cannabis which is used by 40% of youths aged 16-19 years and a shocking 47% of 20-24 year olds. Amphetamine then follows which is used by 18-14% of the above age groups. Between 2011 and 2012, 20,688 young people accessed substance misuse services, with the majority of this number accessing services for abuse of cannabis (64%) or alcohol (29%) (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). Over half of the users were aged 16 to 18 (53%), whilst the rest were aged under 16 (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). About two thirds (64%) of the young people who accessed specialist substance misuse services in 2010-11 were male. Overall, females accessing subst ance misuse services for young people are younger with 19% of males aged under 15 years compared to 27% of females. Almost half of the young people entering specialist substance misuse services are recorded as being in mainstream education, such as schools and further education colleges, followed by a further 19% in alternative education, such as schooling delivered in a pupil referral unit or home setting. A further 19% are recorded as not in education or employment. However, it should be noted that education and employment status was reported for only new young people entering specialist services during the year. Therefore, the total will be lower than that of all young people (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). Referrals to drug and alcohol treatment services commonly come from youth offending teams, although around 14% of referrals come from mainstream education institutions and 7% are made up of self-referrals. Perhaps surprisingly referrals from the Child and Adolescent Mental Health service (CAHMS) make up only 3% of referrals (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). These figures paint a perhaps surprising picture. For example, more young people are referred to specialist drug and alcohol services from mainstream education than specialist educational centres, suggesting that substance abuse could be far rifer amongst young people as might be expected. It could be argued that failure of school authorities to take a more effective preventative approach to drug and alcohol abuse may be contributing to the overall problem. These figures also suggest that immediate attention and intervention must be offered to young people to reduce negative outcomes associated with such high drug use. The statistics reveal that there is a high rate of drug and substance abuse among young people in the UK. The high of level concern about the use of illicit drugs and substances has an effect on health, educational and political discussions in the UK. The government’s national strategy for ten years on drug misuse views young people as a critical priority group in need of quick prevention and treatment intervention (Keegan and Moss, 2008) and recognises the need to improve our understanding of the role played by illicit drugs and substances in the lives of such young people. Educators, health practitioners and policy makers should have comprehensive understanding when it comes to discussions involving the abuse of illicit drugs. For example, the Government must take into account factors such as a lack of understanding amongst young people as to the laws that govern different classes of illegal drugs. Abuse of alcohol and other drugs leads to the destruction of cognitive and emotional development in young people and exposes them to an increased possibility of accidental injury or even death. Finally, there is also a risk of users becoming drug dependent. Abuse of drugs and alcohol by young people can also lead to such negative consequences as coronary heart diseases, lung cancer, AIDS, violent crime, child abuse and unemployment (Gurnack, Atkinson & Osgood, 2002). As a result, individuals indulging in the use of alcohol and other drugs incur tremendous costs in their individual lives, their family lives and even their future careers. Society is also not exempt as it pays a price in different ways. For instance, society incurs extra costs in health care, drug and alcohol treatment, law enforcement and supporting the seriously affected families who have been rendered helpless by the situation. There are many reasons why young people become involved in substance abuse. From a sociology perspective it has been argued that the recreational abuse of drugs has become ‘normalised’ (Parker, Measham and Aldridge, 1995) among certain groups of young people. However, Shiner and Newburn (1997) have argued that this theory is reductionist and simplifies the reasons behind a young person’s choice to abuse drugs. In reality, the reasons as to why a young person may begin to abuse drugs can range from having poor adult role models who may also use drugs and alcohol as a way of coping or even a genetic predisposition toward poor self-regulatory behaviours (Spooner and Hall, 2002). Evidence shows that adolescent alcohol and drug abuse is not influenced by a single factor but a large number of factors which are not necessarily confined to any single part of the an adolescent’s world (Connors, Donovan & DiClemente, 2001). Environment The environment in which a person lives is very instrumental when it comes to the kind of life that people lead, especially young people. If the environment is for example characterized by pronounced unemployment then young people in such an environment will indulge in activities that make them forget even for a moment the realities of the unemployment situation. If, for example, in their immediate environment young people face the situation of a large supply of drugs and everyone around them is abusing drugs or alcohol, then it is easy for such young people to adopt this kind of lifestyle and become drink or drug abusers. The above explanation shows that the kind of environment a young person stays in has a very direct influence on the habits that are finally adopted by this group of young people. Curiosity Young people naturally have the tendency to try new things and to find out how it feels doing something new. Young people in the United Kingdom are not an exception and most of them usually try drinking and drugs just to explore and find out what the experience is like. This however results in the young people becoming victims of the consequences that follow (Woo and Keatinge, 2008). The Defence Mechanism A good number of young people use drugs specifically to assist them in easing trauma that may result from unsatisfactory relationships and also physical or emotional abuse that may arise from families or homes that lack happiness. Promotion and Availability There is always a great amount of pressure from advertisement of alcohol over the media. The colourful nature of these promotions is often very enticing and mostly misleading. In the promotions or commercials, alcohol is glamorised hence the young people are influenced to indulge and as a result end up facing the dire consequences. This review will analyse the different interventions utilised when working with young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. These include those carried out by mental health workers, religion-orientated interventions, community based interventions and more psychiatric, medication based interventions. Motivational based interventions are also discussed. Aims and Objectives The aim of this project will be to review and critically evaluate the literature regarding different interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol in the UK. To achieve this aim the project has set the following objectives: To critically examine the interventions for young people (aged 16 to 21) who use drugs and alcohol in UK, with the aim of providing recommendations to improve the care given to the youths who are addicted or at risk of substance abuse. To use secondary data to identify the importance of different interventions in dealing with young people (age 16 to 21) who use drugs and alcohol in the UK. Rationale Interventions for young people aged 16 to 21 who use drugs and alcohol has elicited varied opinions from professionals involved in their care. This has been a result of the often complex and varied needs of young people with substance abuse issues, such as mental health issues (Weaver et al., 2003), social exclusion (Fakhoury and Priebe, 2006) and involvement with the criminal justice system (Hamdi and Knight, 2012; Lundholm et al., 2013). Therefore, there is often disagreement on where the intervention should focus primarily. Various strategies have been advanced to address the involvement of young adults in drugs and substance abuse. For example, medication by mental health nurses in cases of addiction (Bennett and Holloway, 2005). However, due to the variety of interventions available for treating young people with substance abuse disorder, it is important to continuously review the literature in this area and pin point the most effective interventions for treating this group of individuals. [Client must write some words here on why they have chosen this topic (this is essential according to the assignment brief).] SEARCH STRATEGY In preparation for this critical literature review, a number of sources including journals, articles and health text books were used. The search was conducted using computerised databases which enabled access to literature on interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. Examples of such databases are given below: The Department of Health NHS Evidence (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2012). PsycINFO (American Psychological Association, 2013). PubMed (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2013). Google Scholar (Google, 2013). net (EMAP Publishing, 2013). Nursing and Midwifery Council publications (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2010). Royal College of Psychiatrists useful resources (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2013). Royal College of Nursing library services (Royal College of Nursing, 2013). These databases contained numerous useful sources such as journal articles, recommendations, guidelines and reviews that were used to gather evidence relevant to interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. Search terms used included; ‘drugs and substance abuse’, ‘alcohol abuse’, ‘effects of alcohol abuse’, and ‘intervention measures for drugs and substance abuse[1]’. It was not uncommon for a search to produce many results. Therefore, for any search that produced more than 50 results, the first 50 results were observed to pick out the most relevant and interesting studies. The remaining results were not looked at because of time constraints[2]. In addition to searching for relevant sources through online databases, reference lists within articles were also utilised to search for other relevant sources. Inclusion Criteria For an effective review of the subject area, there was a need to select relevant articles to achieve the set objectives. Therefore, only sources relevant to intervention for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol, papers published in the English language and papers published after the year 1999 were selected. Although sources pertaining to studies carried out in the USA were still considered relevant, a priority was given to sources from the UK. If a source had used an adult sample but was still considered relevant and useful then it was considered for inclusion. Exclusion Criteria General papers on drugs and substance abuse not specific to youths, papers published in languages other than English and published before the year 1999 were not included. An example search strategy when using one of these sources, the British Nursing Index, is given below. Search Strategy Example: British Nursing Index (BNI). Through citing the term ‘intervention for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol’, 5,000 articles were gathered without limiters. Limiters such as ‘role of mental health nurses’ and ‘only book and journals concerned with drugs and substance abuse’ were applied to the second search, which reduced the output to 2,034 books and journals. In the third search, additional limiters such as year of publication (2000-2012) were applied, which then reduced the number of books and journals to 734. After all further limiters were applied, such as articles that only used an age group of 16 to 21 years as participants, 70 journals and books were chosen for further analysis. Only 23 articles were considered relevant for this review and analysis due to their in depth exploration of the subject and their meeting of inclusion and exclusion criteria. LITERATURE REVIEW Interventions for substance abuse serve a number of purposes including reducing use of illicit or non-prescribed drugs and curbing problems related to drug misuse, including health, social, psychological and legal problems and last but not least tackling the dangers associated with drug misuse, including the risks of HIV, hepatitis B and C and other blood-borne infections and the risks of drug-related death. Prevention and intervention are usually categorised into primary (direct prevention), secondary (early identification of the problem and subsequent treatment) and tertiary levels (late identification and treatment). Furthermore, interventions are now often categorised into population wide interventions, selective interventions aimed at only high risk groups and early interventions for at-risk groups (Cuijpers, 2003). The nature of interventions has also evolved over the years. Twenty to thirty years ago the emphasis was on providing young people with information and buffering moral values whereas in the more modern era, a social dimension has been added and young people are taught resistance skills to avoid peer pressure (Gilvarry, 2000). Alcohol related deaths are rife in the UK, with 8,748 alcohol related deaths in the UK in 2011 (Office for National Statistics, 2013). However, there were 1,883 noted drug related deaths in 2010, a decrease of 299 from 2009 (Ghodse et al. 2012). These statistics reflect the importance of interventions for drug abusers, which could be protecting some individuals from the most extreme consequence of substance abuse. Mental Health Interventions Research has evidenced that Major Depressive Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) is often co-morbid in young people who abuse drugs and alcohol (Sutcliffe et al., 2009; Marshall and Werb, 2010; Marmorstein, Iacono and Malone, 2010). Due to the potentially devastating effects of depression at both the individual (Galaif et al., 2011; Petrie and Brook, 2011) and societal level (Sobocki et al., 2006), substance abuse is viewed as something that must be dealt with swiftly and effectively. This co-morbidity of mental illness and substance abuse means that mental health nurses are often involved in interventions with young people. Mental illness is a psychological anomaly that is generally associated with distress or disability that is usually not considered to be a component of an individual’s normal development (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Despite the fact that standard guideline criteria are used all over the world to define mental illness, diagnosis and i ntervention is often incredibly complex, especially when substance abuse is also a factor. Community services are offered to people with such problems through assessment by different psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, or sometimes social workers. All these professionals use methods of observation and inquiries through asking questions to help establish any given patient’s condition. Mental health nurses are often at the front line in providing care and support in both hospitals and the community. In the United Kingdom, mental health nurses play a great role in taking care of young people with mental disorders and mental illnesses that may have developed as a result of substance abuse (Department of Health, 2012). They offer counselling services in order to help people focus on their goals or outcomes; help people develop strategies that support self-care and enable individuals and their families to take responsibility for and participate in decisions about their health. They provide a range of services including education, research and knowledge sharing and e vidence informed practices. They also perform the role of addiction counsellors in order to provide intake co-ordination, assessment, treatment and follow-up care for youths with addictions, mental illness and mental health problems using common assessment tools. They can provide health promotion, prevention and early detection of problematic substance use; use core competencies and knowledge in addictions and a full range of withdrawal management services including detoxification services using best practice treatment protocols, outreach, prescribing, counselling, and harm reduction However, mental health nurses are often faced with challenges that hinder them from successfully achieving their goals. Challenges include non co-operation of the patients’ families and also the complex nature of patient problems (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). In a comprehensive review, RachBeisel, Scott and Dixon (1999) found that there was a much higher prevalence of substance abuse amongst individuals with mental illness and that the course of mental illness was significantly negatively influenced by the abuse of illegal substances. These findings highlight a key issue in mental health interventions for young people who abuse substances, namely that it is important to determine the relationship between the substance abuse and mental illness before allocating a suitable intervention. For example, if a young person has developed a mental illness as a result of abusing substances, a mental health focused intervention may not be appropriate as it would not be treating the root of the problem or the reason why the young person started to use illegal substances in the first place. Psychiatric and Medical Interventions Psychiatric and medical based interventions refer to the treatment of substance abuse in a young person by a psychiatrist who is medically trained and able to provide an additional dimension of treatment than a psychologist or mental health worker is able to. An example of this is the prescription of methadone, a synthetic opiate that is used to help young people withdraw safely from heroin use. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) recommend a psycho-social approach when treating individuals with substance abuse disorder and advocate the use of medication. However, use of medication with young people who are suffering from substance abuse disorders should be used with care due to the risk of dangerous side effects (Webster, 2005). Motivational Interventions Motivational interventions are brief interventions used by professionals to enhance a young person’s motivation to change and stop abusing substances (Tevyaw and Monti, 2004). In a review of the effectiveness of motivational interviewing (Smedslund et al., 2011) it was found that although motivational interviewing techniques were more effective at reducing the extent of future substance abuse when compared to no intervention, the technique was no more effective when compared to other types of intervention. For example, motivational interviewing was no better at reducing extent of substance abuse that simply assessing a patient and providing feedback. The authors reviewed 59 studies that had been accessed from a range of online databases. This is a reasonable number of studies as the body of literature on motivational interviewing as an intervention for substance abuse is quite limited. However, the authors failed to collect evidence on other measures of efficacy such as a redu ction in future criminal prosecution for drug offences or improvement in overall quality of life. The efficacy of motivational interviewing has been studied in young people in particular by McCambridge and Strang (2003). 200 young people from inner city London were randomly allocated to either a motivational interviewing condition or a non-intervention education control condition. All participants were aged between 16 and 20 and were using illegal drugs at the time of the study. The motivational interviewing intervention consisted of a brief, one hour face-to-face interview and self-reported changes in the use of cigarettes, cannabis, alcohol and other drugs was used as the outcome measure both immediately after the interview and at a three month follow up point. It was found that in comparison to the control group, young people who received motivational interviewing as a brief intervention reduced their use of cigarettes, alcohol and cannabis. Although these results initially seem in favour of motivational interviewing as an intervention for young people who have substance abuse issues, it should be noted that self-report measures are very open to bias and it is possible that the reported reduced use of drugs and alcohol was much higher than the actual reduction in use. This was reflected in a follow up study by the same authors 12 months later (McCambridge and Strang, 2005) where it was found that the difference in reduction in substance use between the experimental and control groups found after three months had completely disappeared. This result suggests that although motivational interviewing may be an effective short term intervention for treating young people with substance abuse issues, it has no enduring effectiveness over a long period of time. This may be due to a lack of follow-up support for young people and the brief nature of the intervention. Community-Based Interventions Community drug and alcohol services offer interventions such as comprehensive assessment and recovery care planning, support and care co-ordination, advice and information, stabilisation, counselling and relapse prevention and motivational interviewing (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Hepatitis B vaccinations, Hepatitis C testing and referral to treatment for these diseases, are also essential due to the risk of infections through needle sharing. Like most interventions, these community services are aimed at promoting recovery from addiction and enabling the achievement of individual goals, helping individuals to remain healthy, until, with appropriate support, they can achieve a drug-free life. This may involve stabilising service users on prescribed substitute medication to improve withdrawal symptoms and to reduce cravings. In their review of community-based interventions, Jones et al. (2006) found a limit on the effectiveness of such interventions, especially when it came to long term and enduring effect for reducing substance abuse. The results suggested that a change in community-based interventions was needed. Morgenstern et al. (2001) found a very high level of satisfaction among community based substance abuse counsellors who had received training in delivering cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to clients. This suggests that perhaps one way of increasing the effectiveness of community-based interventions would be to equip community-based workers with a wider range of skills with which they can help young people suffering from substance abuse. Supporting this recommendation was a study by Waldron and Kaminer (2004) who found that use of CBT was associated with clinically significant reductions in substance abuse amongst adolescents. Religious Interventions Some interventions are religious in nature. For instance, the United Methodist Church follows a holistic approach which stresses prevention, involvement, treatment, community organization, and advocacy of abstinence. The church could be argued to have a progressive role by offering a spiritual perception on the issue of substance abuse. Another popular religious based approach to tacking alcohol abuse in particular is the 12-step program offered by Alcoholics Anonymous. Individuals are commonly encouraged or possibly even required cut any acquaintances with friends who still use alcohol. The 12-step programme motivates addicts to stop consuming alcohol or other drugs and also it helps to scrutinize and modify the habits related to their cause of addiction. Numerous programs accentuate that recovery is a long-lasting process with no culmination. For drugs which are legal such as alcohol, complete abstinence is recommended rather than attempts at moderation which may cause relapses. Fi orentine and Hillhouse (2000) found that participants in a 12-step program stayed in future treatment for a much longer period of time and were much more likely to be able to complete a 24-week intervention programme. It was also found that a combination of a 12-step program and an alternative substance abuse intervention was more effective than either treatment alone. This suggests that providing young people with interventions in isolation may not be the most effective way of helping them overcome their substance abuse. However, literature on religious based interventions tends to focus on adults and although still applicable to the treatment of young people in many ways, young people may be put off by the religious nature of these 12-step programmes and may be intimidated by the group nature of the treatment. In support of this criticism, Engle and MacGowan (2009) found that only two out of 13 adolescent group treatments of substance abuse could be categorised as showing potentia l efficacy in treating young people with these problems. Family-Oriented Interventions It has been argued that the family has a central role in both increasing and reducing the risk of problem behaviours in young people such as substance abuse (Vimpani and Spooner, 2003). A review by Velleman, Templeton and Copello (2005) echoed this view that the family can have both a positive or negative impact on a young person’s risk of substance abuse. Kumpfer, Alvarado and Whiteside (2003) have identified that support for families based within the home, family education and skills training, improving parental behaviour and time-limited family therapy are all highly effective forms of family-based interventions for young people with substance abuse issues. However, as research has shown that the family can also play a role in increasing risk of substance abuse, professionals must be confident that family therapy is suitable and not run the risk of worsening a young person’s relationship with their family and in turn worsening their substance abuse. School-Based Interventions Education about the use of drugs and alcohol within schools has been advocated as a preventative intervention for young people at risk of substance abuse disorder. Fletcher, Bonell and Hargreaves (2008) found that interventions focused around encouraging a positive school environment and improving young peoples’ relationships was associated with a reduction in risky substance abuse. However, part of this conclusion was based on the review of observational studies, which are open to bias and subjectivity. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS This essay has reviewed a number of sources regarding the efficacy and suitability of certain interventions for young people with substance abuse issues. A key limitation of much of the literature is the tendency to put emphasis on drugs as a generic material with very little distinction is made between different types of illicit substances. With the very varied effects of different drugs on the user, it could be argued that the specific reasons for a young person’s drug usage will have an impact on the effects that a drug has. For example, stimulant drugs will most likely be used for nervous system arousal, while other drugs such as alcohol and cannabis are sedatives and cause nervous system depression. These kinds of drugs can be termed as instrumental drugs since the reasons behind their usage correspond to the effect of the different kind of drug that is used (Brick, 2008). Therefore, it might be useful for professionals to base their interventions on the types of substanc e abused. From the above literature review it is evident that there is need for mental healthcare especially to help young people who are adversely affected by the use of drugs and other substance abuse. Some youths suffer from psychiatric disorders as a result of indulgence in drugs and substance abuse. Others experience mental problems that need serious rehabilitation measures taken in order to counter such problems hence emphasis should be laid on the care that is to be given to the young people affected by any of the above problems caused by the abuse of drugs and other substances. Therefore, mental health interventions remain an important intervention for young people. A number of recommended adjustments in healthcare to cater for young people struggling with abuse have been identified. For example, there should be an increased application of various musical strategies in helping patients suffering from various mental health conditions as a result of substance abuse (Connors, Donovan & DiClemente, 2001), as this kind of intervention appears to be lacking in use with young people. Another main limitation in research that aims to measure the effectiveness of intervention measures is the lack of control that researchers have. It would be considered unethical if young people with drug abuse problems were randomly allocated to intervention procedures, especially if one was chosen as a control condition and was not believed to be effective in treating substance abuse issues. This means that it can be difficult to compare intervention methods. Another limitation lies in the types of measure researchers’ use to measure effectiveness of intervention methods. For example, a self-report measure may be used to assess whether young people have either stopped or at least reduced their intake of illicit substances. This type of questionnaire may also be used to see if the young people are seeing a positive result from receiving an intervention. However, self-report measures are open to social desirability bias meaning that many young people may fabricate their answer s in order to either please the professionals who are involved with helping them or to conceal ongoing substance abuse. The review has also emphasized the causes or triggers of alcohol and drug abuse among young people in the United Kingdom showing that the environment a young person stays in is one of the greatest factors that lead to indulgence in alcohol, drug and substance abuse. Other factors like enjoyment, peer pressure, promotions in the media and rebellion are also causes of alcohol, drug and substance abuse among the youth in the United Kingdom (Gurnack, Atkinson and Osgood, 2002). More focus on these root causes could help improve prevention and reduce the need for later intervention, which has a poor track record of success. Finally, there is need according to the literature review to improve media perception of mental health patients in order to help alleviate the conditions of psychiatric disorders that are caused by the indulgence of young people in alcohol, drug and substance abuse (Berglund and Thelander, 2003). This doesn’t indicate failure in the mental nursing services but it just implies that mental health workers and psychiatrists need reinforcement in order to positively contribute to successful intervention (Califano, 2007). This suggestion is based on the need for a more holistic approach when it comes to treating young people with substance abuse issues, where the effect on all areas of their life including their mental health must be taken into account during intervention. Strengths of this Critical Literature Review Secondary data was reviewed in this project, which provided larger scope on choices of information for the project. In addition this review was able to identify key areas for improvement of health condition interventions for youths affected by substance abuse. Limitations of this Critical Literature Review This literature review was small in scale, since word and time limits were set. Although 23 articles were selected for review, this number could have been improved. 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(2003) Comorbidity of substance misuse and mental illness in community mental health and substance misuse services. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 183, pp. 304-313. Webster, L.R. (2005) Methadone-related deaths. Journal of Opioid Management, 1(4), pp, 211-217. Woo, S. M. and Keatinge, C. (2008) Diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders across the lifespan. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons. APPENDICES Appendix A Search Term: â€Å"Drugs and substance abuse.† SourceNumber of Relevant Hits Department of Health0 NHS Evidence5597 PsychINFO22 PubMed2337 Google Scholar1,070,000 Nursing.net4435 Nursing and Midwifery Council59 Royal College of Psychiatrists477 Royal College of Nursing library services1,753 Search Term: â€Å"Alcohol Abuse.† SourceNumber of Relevant Hits Department of Health0 NHS Evidence6893 PsychINFO92 PubMed87,995 Google Scholar1,480,000 Nursing.net1760 Nursing and Midwifery Council138 Royal College of Psychiatrists629 Royal College of Nursing library services1,654 Search Term: â€Å"Effects of alcohol abuse.† SourceNumber of Relevant Hits Department of Health0 NHS Evidence5476 PsychINFO31 PubMed21,363 Google Scholar1,430,000 Nursing.net8502 Nursing and Midwifery Council40 Royal College of Psychiatrists531 Royal College of Nursing library services2,590 Search term: â€Å"Intervention measures for drugs and substance abuse.† SourceNumber of Relevant Hits Department of Health0 NHS Evidence3169 PsychINFO3 PubMed215 Google Scholar174,000 Nursing.net7672 Nursing and Midwifery Council23 Royal College of Psychiatrists302 Royal College of Nursing library services3,250 Appendix B TitleFirst AuthorPublication Year 1Drug treatment and twelve-step program participation: the additive effects of integrated recovery activities.Fiorentine2000 2A critical review of adolescent substance abuse group treatments.Engle2009 3Co-occuring severe mental illness and substance use disorders: A review of recent research.RachBeisel1999 4Statistics for young people in specialist drug and alcohol services in England 2011-12National Drug Treatment Monitoring System2012 5Substance abuse in young people.Gilvarry2000 6The efficacy of single-session motivational interviewing in reducing drug consumption and perceptions of drug-related risk and harm among young people: results from a multi-site cluster randomised trial.McCambridge2004 7The role of the family in preventing and interviewing with substance use and misuse: a comprehensive review of family intervention, with a focus on young people.Velleman2005 8School effects on young people’s drug use: a systematic review of interv ention and observational studies.Fletcher2008 9A review of community-based interventions to reduce substance misuse among vulnerable and disadvantaged young people.Jones2006 10Motivational enhancement and other brief interventions for adolescent substance abuse: foundations, applications and evaluations.Tevyaw2004 11Motivational interviewing for substance abuse.Smedslund2011 12On the learning curve: the emerging evidence supporting cognitive-behavioural therapies for adolescent substance abuse.Waldron2004 13Testing the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral treatment for substance abuse in a community setting: within treatment and posttreatment findings.Morgenstern2001 14Family-based interventions for substance use and misuse prevention.Kumpfer2003 15Deterioration over time in effect of Motivational Interviewing in reducing drug consumption and related risk among young people.McCambridge2005 16Drug misuse: psychosocial interventions: full guideline.National Institute for Health and C linical Excellence2007 17Substance abuse treatment and the stages of change: Selecting and planning interventions.Connors2001

Decline of Religion in 20th Century Neitzsche essays

Decline of Religion in 20th Century Neitzsche essays In this paper I am supposed to choose an existential or nihilist thinker and apply their thoughts to the 20th century problems that we identified at the beginning of class. Im not going to do this. What Im going to write about is one of, if not the biggest, problem mankind has ever created for itself. Christianity. While Christianity was not on the list of problems that we identified I cannot help but wonder if the man I will examine and his writings had anything to do with the decline of this outdated monolith. Of course Im speaking of none other than Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, born Oct. 15, 1844, was a German philosopher who, together with, Soren Kierkegaard shares the distinction of being a forerunner of Existentialism. He studied at the universities of Leipzig and Bonn, receiving his doctorate degree from the Leipzig in 1869. Because he had already been published, he was offered the chair of classical philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland before the doctorate was officially conferred on him. He left the university in 1879 due to ill health caused by a short stint in the military, and began concentrating on his writings. My focus will be on three of his works that show his opinions of the Christian/Slave morality, The Gay Science, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and Beyond Good and Evil. Beginning with The Gay Science, first published in 1882, Nietzsches contempt for Christianity (as well as other groups notably Germans) came to the forefront. In the third book Nietzsches Madman comes looking for God. As men who did not believe laughed and asked if God had become lost the madman uttered the words that the author is best known for. God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him. The Enlightenment, which had already begun to question religion laid the groundwork for the madman. Those men to whom he questions are the Enligh...

High Technology Fibers Essay Example

High Technology Fibers Essay Example High Technology Fibers Essay High Technology Fibers Essay HIGH TECHNOLOGY FIBRES FOR TECHNICAL TEXTILES 1 INTRODUCTION Human life is surrounded by hundreds of textile fibres either in the form of clothes, interior textiles or in the form of high performance technical textiles made of conventional or high technology fibres for various applications. A textile fibre is usually defined as a flexible, macroscopically homogenous cylindrical body mainly with circular cross- section having a high ratio of length to diameter (typically 100-3000: 1). Textile fibres are derived both from natural and synthetic origins. Natural fibres such as cotton, wool etc. are often found with lengths 1000-3000 times their diameter. On the other hand coarser natural fibres such as jute, flax, ramie, etc. have lengths 100- 500 times their diameter. However man-made fibres can be made in any desired ratio of length to diameter. The technical textile industry uses both natural and man-made fibres in manufacturing a variety of products. Natural fibres mainly come from agricultural and animal sources; (although asbestos is a natural fibre coming from mineral sources, but this fibre is banned in many countries from being used due to health hazards) whereas the production of man-made fibres is an important activity of the world-wide chemical industry involving largely natural polymers and synthetic polymers (derieved from petrochemical by-products). There are also a limited number of man-made fibres such as glass, metal and ceramics are produced using inorganic materials. Although natural fibres are extensively used in the technical textile iiidwliv, a serious manufacturing of technical textiles only started about thirty years ago with the inception of man-made fibres. Over the last twenty, years, the man-made fibre industry has seen a radical growth in terms of fibre consumption tbr the technical textile industry. In general, the man-made fibre industry achieved a vast expansion between 1940 and 1970, creating a new spectacular look for the clothing and fashion trade, but today it is showing signs of maturity. Multinational fibre producers have, therefore, turned their ttention to a new dimension, which is technical textiles, to fuel the next major wave of creativity, innovation and growth. It will thus open-up the possibility of a major growth of particularly high tenacity and high technology man-made fibres for the technical textile industry. The growth is also expected to be fuelled by the significant global economic upturn in the first half of 20 00. The estimated total ofworld production of the major textile fibres (including both natural and man-made) for 1998 was over 55 million tonnes, ofwhich approximately 20% was used in the production of technical textiles. It is anticipated that by 2001, nearly 25% of the global. flbre production will be used in technical textiles. Of course, the major breakthrough in this growth will come from ‘New Technical Textiles and New Technologies’ replacing the traditional linear concept of material production. 2 CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES In general, textile fibres are classified into two main groups: natural and man-made. Virtually all kinds of fibres (both natural and man-made) are used in technical textiles. However, for narket structural requirements, fibres used in technical textiles can be divided into two main classes, namely: commodity fibres; and high-technology or speciality fibres. Although by market perception. commqdity fibres are those which are extensively used for traditional textiles, such as apparel and clothing, household textiles, carpets etc. , but contrary to this, today the majority of technical end-uses of textiles are based on commodity fibres. A high degree of engineering ingenuity is, however, often devoted to the design of the item constructed from such fibres. Commodity fibres can be sub-classified into two other groups: conventional fibres such as cotton, wool etc. and high-tenacity fibres, such as polyester, polypropylene etc. In Western Europe, almost 95% of technical textile products are currently made by commodity fibres (- 67% by conventional fibres and - 28% by high-tenacity fibres). Although tl commodity fibres grossly dominate the technical textile markets, but due to the defined scope of this chapter specific features of popular commodity fibres are not included here. High technology or speciality fibres are those which very often are made involving novel materials and sophisticated manufacturing techniques. These fibres are normally characterised for their specific performance enhancing properties. High technology fibres normally add value to the finished products. A number of publication  ° on the subject and related topics have appeared in the last few years. The introduction of high-technology or speciality fibres in technical textiles has allowed us to enter a new era of materials revolution. ‘These fibres are used for special requirements demanded by certain types of technical textiles. Such technical requirements are high temperature protection, high impact and dynamic energy absorption capacity, high cut-through resistance etc. In other words, high-technology or speciality fibres are normally chosen for their particular suitability to an end-use such as protective clothing for ballistic body armour, for high-risk jobs and sports (Figure 1), lightweight textile- reinforced structural components for aircraft, high-performance ropes for marine applications (Figure 2), sfructural panels (reinforced with fibres) for building construcon and so on. Aramids (Keviar, Nomex, Twaron etc. ), glass, carbon, polyethylene, polyphenylene su ph ide, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) etc. arc some of the popular high- technology fibres frequently used ‘for technical textiles. High-technology fibres are expensive (10 to 500 times more expensive than commodity fibres) and are often known as ‘Premium Fibres’. Currently high-technology fibres have about - 5% of the total market in technical tcxtiles in Western Europe, but the global market of these fibres is growing rapidly. FIBRE PRODUCTION: SPINNING AND DRAWING Other than inorganic fibres, all man-made fibres (both commodity and high tcchnoogy) are spun either from natural polymers or from synthetic polymers. it is necessary either to melt the polymer at an elevated temperature or to dissolve it in a solvent to form a fibre from a polymer. The most extensively used commercial spinning techniques are melt spinning, dry spinning and wet spinning. Ot her techniques which are used mainly to spin certain types of high technology fibres are gel spinning, liquid crystal spinning, emulsion spinning etc. Both dry and wet spinning processes are technically known as ‘Solution Spinning’. The technology of solution spinning is highly specialised for the individual fibre industry and some of the techniques are described in the patents and in the published literature. Many high-technology fibres e spun using solution spinning techniques. Figure 3 shows the schemii diagram of the three principal methods of spinning fibres. Most of the thermoplastic polymers which do not degrade in their molten state are normally extruded by the melt spinning process. The process is considered as safe, simple and cost effective. The molten polymer is extruded through a nozzle, called a spinneret. Extruded fibre is then passed through a chamber to cool and solidify. Thereafter, the spun material is drawn and wound on a bobbin. Nylon 6, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) etc. are the typical examples of melt-spun fibres. Dry spinning is the process whereby the dope (polymer solution) is passed through a spinneret and solvent is flushed off the resultant fibre in the spin heated chamber, also known as the spin column, before winding the fibre on a bobbin. A high technology fibre from the meta-aramid group, known as Noinex [poly (rn-phenyleneisothalamide)J is a popular example of a dry- spun fibre. Wet spinning was the first process to produce a man-made fibre. The process involves a liquid polymer solution which is pumped through the spinneret into a coagulating chamber. The coagulated fibre is then washed to complete the solvent removal process and often drawn and latter wound on a bobbin Acrylic fibres (polyacrylc’nitrile) are primarily spun by this method. However, they also can be spun by the dry spinning technique. Gel spinning and liquid crystal spinning are two other processes, which are becoming commercially more promising for high technology fibres. Some scientists believe that gel spinning perhaps is the only way to produce ultra high strength polyethylene fibre. However, both the processes are still in the development stage. Depending upon the polymer and the spinning system, commodity fibres are commercially spun at a speed of 1000-5000 metres per minute, although research work has been undertaken on melt-spun fibres produced at a speed of 12000 metres per minute. Most of the high-technology fibres are spun at a reasonably lower speed compared to the speed us. ed to spill a commodity fibre. Spun yarn is often subjected to a process known as drawing. A schematic diagram of the drawing process is given in Figure 4. Drawing introduces orientation and in some cases crystallinity too, into the molecular structure of the fibre and converts the undrawn extruded yarn into a commercially useful material. The degree of stretch technically known as the draw ratio is set by adjusting the surface speeds of input and output rollers (v and v. respectively in the Figure 4) and its magnitude depends on the end use of the material. Drawing is normally accomplished at a temperature above the glass transition point of the spun material. 4 USEFUL FIBRE PROPERTIES FOR TECNNICAL TEXTILES The long-term durability, dimensional stability, etc. of technical textiles are functions of many fibre properties. For example, thermal and thermomechanical responses of fibres des cribe the usefulness of the longterm utilisation of a fibre in a technical textile particularly to be used in a hostile environment such as hoPgas or liquid filtration, welders’ suits or even textiles usedn tyres. The knowledge of various fibre properties thus allows the manufacturers of technical textiles to have a logical estimation of the suitability and subsequently the durability of the materials used in a particular environment so as to minimise the risks of unwanted failure due to the interaction of stress-deformation-temperature and degradative chemical reactions. Specific fibre properties are measured for the specific technical applications. However, such properties can be grouped into the following classes: (a) mechanical properties: strength or tenacity, extensibility, modulus or stiffness, elastic recovery etc. b) thermal and thermomechanical responses: melting temperature, high temperature mechanical properties etc. (c) chemical characteristics: resistance to various inorganic and organic chemicals etc. (d) electrical properties: static electricity build-up, dielectric behaviour, insulating nature etc. (e) abrasion and ageing behaviours (f) surface properties: adhesion, moisture t ransport behaviour etc. (g) optical properties (h) other special properties Tailor-made special properties are very often the features of high-technology fibres. For example, fibres can be engineered into hollow structures that are capable of providing the varying degree of porosity and strength needed in medical applications such as synthetic blood vessels, controlled drug release etc. ; itt chemical/water industry applications such as purification, filtration etc. ; in civil engineering and many other applications. There are many such- tailor made special properties which are developed in a wide variety of high technology fibres. Table I highlights some attributes of high-technology fibres for technical textiles. These are successfully exploited on a wide variety of technical textIle products to enhance performance. 5 SPECIFIC FFATU1ES OF SOME FilCH TECHNOLOGY FIBRES 5. 1 Aromatic polyamides (Aramids) A class of aromatic polyamides distinctly different in properties from the conventional aliphatic polyamide was given the name of’Aramid’ by the Federal Trade Commission of the USA in 1974. The first aramid fibre was developed by the Dupont company in USA and was introduced in the market in 1965. This was a meta-orientated aramid called Nomex. There are two types of commercially successful aramids available. Technically both types can be classified as high technology fibres. The first type of fibres have high temperature resistance and belong to the meta aramid group. They have moderate tenacity and low modulus but excellent resistance to heat. Their utility is largely based upon combustion. The fibres in this class show high melting/decomposition points (600-800 °C). rvletaaram ids arc extremely uselli I when outstanding thermal protection (e. g. protective apparel) and electrical insulation propCrtics are required. xamples of meta-aramids, which are commercially available and widely used Car various applications, are Nomex produced by Dupont and Conex from Teijin. Figure 5 shows chemical structures of meta and para-aramicls. Para-aramids are mechanically much stronger and stiffer than meta-aramids. Dupont is the major global producer of para-aramid fibres with a trade name of Keviar. Currently Kevlar is available in a number of grades (e. g. Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49 etc. ) which have a wide spread of properties. The other producers of similar kinds of material is AKZO and the trade name of their p-arainid is called Twaron. Teijin in Japan have developed a copolymer based paraaramid like fibre commercially known as Technora. The common feature of all of the above mentioned commercially available para-aramid fibres (irrespective of their total polymeric constitutions) is the presence of the para-orientated phenylene unit in their molecular structures. Normally aramid . fibres are produced involving a dry-jet wet spinning process as shown in Figure 6. Aramid fibres have tensile strengths at 300 °C that are characteristic ofhigh enacity commodity fibres at room temperature. Para-aramid fibres have even very useful tenacities well above 300 °C. In contrast nylon 6. 6 and polyester (PET) loose almost all of their strength at about 220 °C. Also ararnid fibres retain useful tensile properties after heat-ageing at 3 00 °C for 1-2 weeks. Heat-ageing lifetime of para-aramids are superior than metaaramids. Aramid fibres chatacteristically burn only with difficulty and they do not melt like nylon 6. 6 or polyester fibres. They are useful in a number of applications requiring high flame resistance. Upon burning, the aramid fibre produce a thick char which acts as a thermal barrier and pFevents serious burns to the skin. Aramid fibres have high volume resistivities and dielectric strengths. They also retain these properties at elevated temperature. Accordingly, the fibres have considerable potential as high temperature dielectrics particularly for use on motors and transformers. Table. II illustrates some useful properties of para and meta-aramid fibres. Para-aramid fibres are not only very strong and stiff, they also have high dynamic energy absorption capacity. High strength, stiffness, excellent dynamic energy absorption behaviour with high fracture toughness of paraaramid create an ideal combination of this material’s suitability in ballistic performance. Figure 7 shows the design of a multilayer bullet-proof vest made of Keviar fabric. Scientists and Technologists have found numerous applications ofaramid fibres since their inception and more new and novel applications are being reported regularly. Table III shows some technical applications of meta and para-aramid fibres. 5. 2 Aromatic polyamide-imide Very few polymers suitable for fibre extrusion belong to the chemical family of polyamide-imide. The successful fibre in this category is called Kermel and is introduced in the market through a joint venture between RhonePoulenc Fibres and Amoco Fabrics. Kermel fibre has excellent inherent fire retardant and dimensional stability, good abrasion resistance and resistance to fraying. It is light and soft. 11 â€Å"s average moisture absorption capability and good antistatic qualities. Soiie useful properties of Kermel fibre are as follows: Amongst suitable applications, the fibre is used in a wide variety of personal protective equipments including the underwear component of racing drivers’ suits, fire fighter’s vests etc. 5. 3 Carbon The existence of carbon fibre became known to mankind in 1879 when Thomas Edison took a patent for the manufacture ofcarbon filaments suitable for use in electric lamps. However, the actual history of carbon fibre in manufacturing high performance preforms for advanced composites to meet the needs of the aerospace industry began in late 1950s. In the early 60s, a successful commercial production process for carbon fibre was developed by William Watt and his team at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough in the UK. Since then, the carbon fibre market and that of composite products made from it have both been consistently expanding due to the attractive technical properties and excellent performance of the fibre. Carbon fibre is described as a fibre containing at least 90% ofcarbon obtained by controlled pyrolysis of appropriate fibres. A large variety of such appropriate fibres which are known as precursors, is used to produce carbon fibres ofdifferent morphologies and different specific characteristics. The most prevalent precursors are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), cellulosic fibres (viscose, cotton etc. , pitch and certain phenolic fibres. Different routes are followed to develop carbon fibres either by manufacturimg from fibrous precursors or by the extrusion of pitch. Acrylic precursor produces strongest carbon fibre. In general, following are three successive stages in the conversion of fibrous precursors into high technology carbon fibres; I. Oxidative stabilisation between 100-400 °C depen ding on the precursors II. Carbon isation between 700-1500 °C III. Graphitisation between 1500-3000 °C according to the type of final fibre required Carbon fibre is exceptionally strong and stiff. A balanced match between high strength and high specific stiffness makes carbon fibre undoubtedly an ideal material for aircraft structural composites. The primary reasons for the popularity ofcarbon fibres and their dominance in the aerospace industry are considered to be as follows: a) Relative to weight, carbon fibres are about 7 times as strong as most metals with respeci to specific strength and about 5 tiiucs as strong as most metals with respect to tensile strength. b) They have low expansion and contraction over a very wide range of temperatures. ) They have a higher resistance to fatigue than steel and aluminium. d) ihey provide a better airworthiness and crashworthinessstructure and offer a significant gain in fuel economy. e) Carbon fibre composites used in aircraft construction reduce overhaul and maintenance costs as metal structures are said to be more prone to cracks and corrosion in service. The maui applications of carbon fibres are in the composites used in the foll owing areas: aircrafi and space shuttle (Figure 10) automotive (Figure I I) sports and recreational equipment (Figure 12) marine high performance structures (Figure 13) and general engineering medical implants (Figure 14) Many of the carbon reinforced composite structures are made from three dimensional wove or knitted preforms. Some ofthe useful properties of carbon fibres produced from polyacrylonitrile and pitch precursors are as follows: 5. 4 Glass Glass as a material is perhaps as old as civilisation itself, but the use of glass as a high technology fibre is relatively a modern idea. Glass used as a high technology fibre is made from similar ingredients to any other glass material. Silica is the basis for all commercial glass. They are obtained by fusing a mixture ofyarious metal oxides at temperatures ranging from 1300 to 1600 °C. There are different types of glass fibres commercially available all of which have different compositions and very often specific technical significance. Following is an outline of some of the popular varieties of glass: 1. ‘A’ glass has an alkali-containing composition, sometimes used for fibre manufacture, 11. ‘AR’ glass is alkali-resistance glass used in the form of fibres for reinforcing cement, 111. ‘C’ glass has a composition that provides resistance to most ofthe chemicals, IV. E’ glass has an almost universally acceptable formulation and ha become a standard for most ofthe uses in fibre and related 1)1OdtICtS. The letter ‘E’ stands for electrical, as the composition has the high electrical resistance, V. ‘HS’ glass is a magnesium-aluminia-silica glass contains small amounts ofa number of other oxid es. HS stands for high strength. VI. ‘S’ glass has a composition similar to ‘HS’ glass which, in fibre form, possesses high strength; the growth ofthis material in advanced composites is increasing rapidly. High technology glass fibres are normally made in the form of continuous strands. Over 90% of all continuous glass fibres produced arc of E’ glass composition. Figures 15 and 16 shows schematic diagram of ‘two-stage’ and ‘one-stage’, production processes respectively for continuous glass fibres. Glass fibres are strong, stiff, non-flammable and heat resistant. They are also highly resistant to chemicals, moisture and attack by micro-organisms. The strength of glass fibre can be easily lost by surface damage. In most cases the high performance characteristics are maintained by embedding or coating the fibre in a protective resin. Glass fibre also suffers from static fatigue i. e. he measured strength decreases with increasing time to failure. Some important properties of glass fibres are given below in Table VI: Glass fibre is extensively used in reinforced plastics (commonly known as GRP) for aircraft and aerospace; appliances and equipment; construction; consumer goods; corrosion resistant products; land transportatian; and sports and leisure items. Glass fibre is an excellent substitute for asbestos as they are non-combustible, rot resistant, highly stable and do not represent a health hazard. Glass fibre is used in both radial and bias-ply automotive tyre reinfdrcement. When it is used as a breaker or belt in bias or bias-belted construction in tyre, it provides a softer ride, greater resistance to damage, better stability and lower reinforcement cost. It performs extremely well in long distance driving. Glass is also an attractive additive to cement as it is cheap and easy to blend. Glass fibre is capable of improving the flexural strength of the composite structure. Glass reinforced cement is used in highway overlay (to provide crack-resistant surface), in architectural building panels, in roofing tiles, in drain pipes (as a replacement for steel-mesh reinforcement). It is also used as a reinforcing material for high speed roadways (Figure 17). A major breakthrough in glass fibre application came, when the material established its potential for use as optical frequency communication wave guides conveniently known as ‘optical fibre’. Optical fibres are made from extremely pure silica produced under controlled process conditions. ’They are extremely delicate and need to be handled very carefilly (Figure 18). Normally fibre optic cables are reinforced (for protection purposes) with Kevlar yarn. Glass fibres suitable for optical transmission matcrial should not have a transmission loss of more than 20 dBlkm. Optical fibres used in satellite and telecommunication syStCms arc claimed to have transmission loss less then 5 dB/krn. 5. 5 Polyethylene High technology polyethylene fibres, with exceptionally high strength and stiffhess together with unique strength-to-weight ratios are now commercially available from several companies world-wide. The process that dominates current commercial method of producing ultra-high strength and modulus uivcthvleiic fibres follows the solution spinning route. The spinning method for high technology polyethlene uses very high molecular weight polymer and the process is technically called ‘gel spinning’. The reason of calling the process gel spinning is the gel-like appearance of the filaments after spinning and cooling. The process comprises of three main stages; I. the continuous extrusion of the solution of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, II. spinning of the solution followed by gelation/crystallisation which can be done either by cooling and extraction or by evaporation of the solvent, and III. ultradrawing and removal of emaining solvent. A line diagram of the gel spinning process is given in Figure 19. Polyethylene fibre is also produced using melt spinning process. The usage of high strength and high modulus polyethylene fibre is growing rapidly, particularly in certain areas of technical textiles and also in composites. The main attributes of high technology polyethylene fibres are as follows: high strength a nd specific modulus together with high energy to break, low specific gravity, very good abrasion resistance, excellent chemical and electrical resistance, good UV resistance, and low moisture absorption, Some useful properties of both gel-spun and melt-spun high performance polyethylene fibres arc given in Table VII: An impressive combination of fibre properties contribute to the market thrust in terms of the enormous potential application areas of high performance polyethylene fibre. Some of the growing application areas include sail cloth; marine ropes and cables; protective clothing; composites e. g. sports equipment, pressure vessels, boat hulls, impact shields etc. ; concrete reinforcement; fish netting; and medical implants etc. 5. 6 PVA Polyvinyl alcohol fibre has been used in technical textiles since late 80s for its high tenacity, good dimensional stability and high resilience. However, the traditionally spun fibre never received wide acceptance in a wide range of product applications because of its strength retention in presence of water particularly at a high temperature. However, the Japanese manufacturer Kurary and Unitika have come up with high strength and high modulus gel- spun PVA fibres. Apart from its high strength and good dime. isional stability, the fibre offers good thermomechanical responses at temperatures as high as 170 °C. It also provides excellent resistance to flex fatigue and creep. Gel-spun PVA also offers high stability in the presence of water even at high temperature. The gel-spun version of PVA is quite new to the market and is being commercially tried in various products. The most promising area of gel-spun PVA appears to be in tyres for belt reinforcement and in mechnical rubber goods. Some useful properties of gel-spun PVA fibre are given in Table V III: 5. 7 Spandex fibres This is a class of synthetic elastomeric fibres (elastomeric fibres are those vhich have mechanical properties characteristic of rubber). Spandex fibres are manufactured from long-chain polymers composed of at least 85% of a :. cgmented polyurethane. The segments are based on low molecular weight polyethers or polyesters. The generic name Spandcx was given by the Federal Trade Commission of USA. Lycra was the first spandex fibre introduced in the market by Dupont Company in 1960. Today several kinds of Spandex fibres with different trade names are available in the market. The method of manufacturing spandex fibre depends on the chemical structure of the long chain molecule. Commercially melt, dry and wet spinning techniques are used. Lycra for example is known to be made by dry spinning systems. In wet spinning the reaction to complete the formation of the elastomeric fibre takes place in the coagulation bath (Figure 3). That is why this system of manufacturing spandex fiber is also known as the reaction spinning. Strength (tenacity), breaking extension, power (it is defined as the stress in the material after being held for sometime, normally 5 minutes, at an extension of 300% relative to the un stretched dimensions) and elastic recovery are the novel properties of typical spandex fibres. Some useful properties of spandex fibres are as follows: Spandex fibres have low tenacities, high extensibilities, low power requirements for large deformations and relatively low specific gravity. Spandex yams have about the same breaking extension as the natural rubber yarns but they are twice as strong. Also elastic recovery (it is defined as the recovered extension as a percentage of the imposed extension) of spandex fibres is excellent although actual recovery depends on the amount of stretch, the time for which the specimens are held in the stretched state and the time allowed for recovery. Typical elastic recovery behaviour of spandex fibres after holding specimen in extended condition for 60 seconds at ambient conditions is given below: Spandex fibres are extensively used in sports and leisure garirients, foundation garments, support hose etc. 5. 8 Fluorine-containing fibre The only important fibre in this category is made ofpolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) introduced in the market by the Dupont Company under the trade name ‘Teflon’. PTFE was disco’ered by Dupont Scientist Dr Roy Plunkett shortly befare World War II. This polymer is insoluble virtually in all known solvents and, therefore, cannot be solution spun. Also the polymer has high melting point which possess serious problems to produce melt-spun fibre. The fibre is produced using a novl technique called emulsion spinning. PTFE fibres have high chemical stability, low frictional characteristics, extremely high . thermal and electrical insulating power, and veiy high melting point. PTPE provides excellent resistance to heat over an extremely useful thermal wifldow co’ering 190 °C to 260 °C. It also provides high resistance to fungus and biological agents. PTFE is also well known for its non-sticking behaviour. Apparently it is the most inert material known to man. PTFE fibres are used in highly specialised applications such as high temperature and high voltage (including a wide range of frequencies) electrical insulation, filtration medium for corrosive chemicals, packing materials for expensive items to avoid frictional damage etc. Apart from Dupont, Hoechst and ICI also produce PTFE and market them under the trade names Hostaflon (Hoechst) and Fluon (ICI). 5. PBZT and PBO These two fibres have emerged from a class of heterocylic polymers with some outstanding qualities. Chemically two fibres are poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole) [PBZT] and poly (p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) [PBO]. Both the fibres have excellent strength, stiffness, thermal, chemical and environmental stability. However, the compressive strength of these fibres is low. Some useful properties of PBZT a nd PBO fibres are as follows: Extremely high thermal and mechanical performance of these two fibres are particularly interesting for high performance structural applications. Currently the fibres are known to be produced by Dow Chemical Company of the USA. 5. 10 PBI Polybenzimidazole (PBI) was first commercialised by the Hoechst Celanese company in 1983. PBI was initially developed to be used by NASA for nonflammable space research articles. PBI has since been adopted for other applications and is used either alone or in blends with other fibres. PBI is a high regain and low modulus fibre which is very similar to cotton. It has excellent thermal stability, good insulative qualities and excellent static charge dissipation behavior. PBI fibre does not burn in air (it has limiting oxygen index above 41) nor does it melt or drip. It has good pilling, abrasion and flex resistance and good resistance to chemicals. Some useful properties of the PBI fibre are given in Table XII: Current applications of PBI fibres include racing drivers’ suits, thermal protective clothing for high intensity heat (Figure 20), hot gas filtration. It is also used to make protective equipment for utility workers exposed to electrical arc flashes, inflammable chemicals and oils etc. It is expected to make in roads into the industrial, civil aviation and fire fighting markets. 5. 11 Copolymer polyester fibre The random copolyeseters of hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxynapthoic acid have been produced commercially by Hoechst Celanese and the fibre is marketed under the trade name Vectra. The fibre is also produced under a very similar trade name Vectran by the Kurary Company of Japan. The fibre is melt spun and has a distinct fibrillar structure. Some typical properties of Vectra/Vectan fibres are given below: Vectra and Vectran resist water and assure low-creep characteristics. They provide high wear and bending fatigue resistance. These fibres can be used as ideal tension nwmhcrs to optical fibre cables, as the core for heating wires in electric carpets, in lane buoys in swimming pools (Figure 21) in high performance ropes, sporting equipment, fishing nets, protective clothing for high risk jobs etc. 5. 12 Melamine-based fibres Although melamine is considered unreactive, its symmetry and functionality make it suitable for use as a synthesis building block in condensation reactions with formaldehyde. Initially in the condensation reaction, methylol compounds are formed which then react with one another to form a three dimensional structure of methylene ether and methylene bridges. The resulting network gives a material that can be extruded into fibres. This melamine-based fibre is available in various forms but the most successful fibre in this category is marketed by BASF and is commercially called Basofil. Most melamine-based fibres have high heat stability, high solvent resistance, low flammability and good abrasion resistance. The important characteristics of Basofil fibre are its high Limiting Oxygen Index (LOl), low thermal conductivity, good chemical, hydrolysi and ultraviolet resistance with very little hot air shrinkage. Some useful properties of Basofil fibres are as follows: 5. 13 Miscellaneous fibres The above fibres mentioned under different categories are by no means form an exclusive list of fibres used for technical textiles. New developments such as gel-spun polyacrylonitrile, ceramics, alumina/carbon composite and metal fibres are being successfully used in many technical textile applications. Very specialized materials such as certain types of polyetherimide fibres (already used for hot gas filtration, structural reinforcement etc. ), polyoxadiazole fibres (already used in protective clothing etc. ), polyphenylene suiphide, poly (p-xytylene) polyetherketone (PEK), polyetheretherketone (PEEK) fibers etc. are being successfully implemented in new product developments. More information on some of the above flhres is avaiiabe in author’s article on high-performance fibre. The last thirty years have seen the emergence of a number of commercially- successful high-technology fibres. In spite of the high production costs, the high-technology fibre industry has seen phenomenal growth over the last few years. Both the manufacturing and the consumption of many high- technology fibres are still virtually confined to Western Europe, America and Japan. With regard to volume consumption, aramids and glass fibres icad the high-technology or speciality fibres table. In spite of the high price of aramid fibres, a phenomenal growth of this fibre in protective clothing (bullet. roof vests, clothing for high-risk jobs and sports) and other technical applications, has shown the significance and need for new materials for many technical textiles. 6 FINAL REMARKS In production and usage ofhigh technology fibres, each material has its own outstanding qualities and defects. Although the ‘fast-pace’, ‘high-quality’ and ‘high-tech’ lifestyle of today’s customers encourage demands for new and improved fibres for high-quality technical tex tiles but economical new high technology fibres with excellent mechanical and other tailor-made special properties are unlikely to appear in the market in the near future. Therefore, market of technical textiles is to be driven by available high technology fibres with fine-tuning of properties and appropriate application of finishes for enhanced performance. REFERENCES 1. S. K. Mukhopadhyay, ‘High-Performance Fibres’, Textile Progress, Vol. 25, No. 3/4,1993. 2. J. E. Mcintyre and P. Daniels (Editors), Textile Terms and Definitions, I 0† edition, 1995, The Textile Institute, Manchester, 13K. 3. S. K. Mukhopadhyay, Textile Horizons, June 1992. 4. S. K. Mukhopadhyay, Modus, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1996 5. i. F. Mcintyre. Conference Proceedings innovative Technoluges in industrial textiles, textile institute, February 1990 nd (‘omposiws. L lIST, Manchester, 1985. 7. M. Grayson, (Editor), Encyclopedia of Textiles, Fibres andNonwoven Fabrics, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1984. 8. Meredith, R. , Elastomeric Fibres, Merrow Publishing Company, 1971. 9. F. W. Billmeyer, Jr. , Text bookof Polymer Science, John Wiley and Sons,New York, 1971. 10. J. F. Ford, Textiles, Vol. 17,No. 1,1988.